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66. From the late 1970s
onwards a more insidious and corrosive form of fixing took hold in the
game. This involved a player or players under-performing so that the
result of a match or occurrences and events within a match were
determined and fixed in advance. This allowed bets to be placed with a
certainty or high probability of winning. If a team won or lost a match
in a dramatic reversal of form and expectation, as a result of corrupt
under- performance, then the winnings from betting on such a fixed event
were greatly enhanced. It was also possible for a player or players to
under-perform at pre-determined points in a match for betting purposes
and yet still go on to win the match.
67. Betting on cricket
grew in volume dramatically in the 1980s and 1990s as a result of the
interaction of a number of issues.
68. In my discussions
with colleagues in the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) in India
and with Indian Ministers they acknowledged the growth of unlawful
betting on cricket in India and see resumption of international matches
against Pakistan in 1978 as being a key stimulant for raising interest
in betting on cricket.
69. Live television
coverage of matches and the growth in the number of One Day
Internationals (ODI's) created an environment in which it was possible
to watch and bet on cricket almost every day of the year. The chart
below gives an idea of the growth of One Day Internationals. Betting on
cricket grew even more with the widespread availability of mobile
phones.
70. Most of the
betting was and remains outside the lawful and regulated betting
industry. It is of course unlawful to bet in many countries and will
remain so for religious and cultural reasons. The lawful betting
industry around the world, whilst vulnerable to the bet on a fixed
match, has a much stronger chance to monitor and detect these betting
'scams'. The lawful betting industry is regulated and often subject to
money laundering regulations. This industry is also better placed
through record keeping and analysis to detect individuals and events
linked to cricket corruption.
71. It is the nature
of unlawful betting that it is fragmented, secretive and long- term
record keeping is anathema to those who are involved. Betting on
corrupted matches flourished in this environment and the huge volume of
betting hid the smaller number of bets on fixed events.
The Many Aspects
of Corruption in Cricket
72. In some respects
'match fixing' is a misnomer to describe corruption in cricket. The
inquiries summarised at appendix B have placed some aspects of cricket
corruption in the public domain but the full range of cricket corruption
transcends the limited revelations of those investigations.
73. As far as
corruption on the part of players is concerned, the uninformed observer
might assume this is straight-forward and involves players under-
performing so that the opposing team wins and a betting coup takes place
and the corrupt players are paid for their involvement. Whilst indeed
this is 'match fixing' in its most serious and lucrative form,
corruption in cricket has many manifestations because every single
aspect of a match can be and is bet upon. As a result every aspect of a
match is vulnerable to manipulation and fixing, normally through
under-performance. Often these fixed and corrupt incidents within a
match have little or no effect on the final outcome of the game and
consequently are harder to detect. Nevertheless, the betting coup takes
place and the corrupt participants receive payment for the part they
have played. For ease of reference I tend to call this phenomenon
'occurrence fixing'.
74. My unit has
received allegations from a number of different sources of the following
being pre arranged or fixed in order to allow a betting coup to take
place.
-
The outcome of the toss at the beginning of a match
-
The end from which the fielding captain will elect to bowl
-
A set number of wides, or no balls occurring in a designated over
-
Players being placed in unfamiliar fielding positions
-
Individual batsmen scoring fewer runs than their opposite numbers
who batted first
-
Batsmen being out at a specific point in their innings
-
The total runs at which a batting captain will declare
-
The timing of a declaration
-
The total runs scored in a particular innings and particularly the
total in the first innings of a One Day International
75. Several umpires interviewed by my unit have received
approaches in dubious circumstances. With the benefit of hindsight,
some umpires have realised that what they thought at the time to be
an innocuous approach was actually the start of an attempt to
corrupt them. Whilst allegations in respect of umpires focus largely
on their favouring one team over another in their decisions, other
aspects of their behaviour are sought to be fixed for betting
purposes. Bizarre though it may seem, it is not uncommon for bets to
be placed on the end at which a particular umpire will stand at the
start of play. In a way betting on 'either/or' situations in cricket
is equivalent to a red or black, odds or evens bet at roulette.
76. Allegations of groundsmen preparing pitches to suit home
teams have been made for many years. Indeed players and others
regard this as a legitimate hazard when touring. More contentious,
however, is the practice of groundsmen, on payment from bookmakers,
preparing pitches that will ensure a result. This is alleged to have
happened after a succession of draws in a test series. Equally
serious are the allegations that groundsmen have been bribed to
interfere with a pitch overnight to assist a team for betting
purposes.
77. Whilst corruption at the playing level is now well
documented, equally serious allegations are emerging about
individuals involved past and present in the administration of
cricket. It is too early to form judgments about these allegations
and the picture is confused by internecine struggles within
individual countries for control of cricket. Also personal rivalries
have undoubtedly led to smear campaigns. Nevertheless, the sums of
money now coming into cricket centrally through the International
Cricket Council and those generated by individual boards are large
by any standards. The current corporate governance arrangements
within cricket are inadequate for the task. Investigations will
continue into alleged corruption in television rights contracts and
related issues.
Drug Abuse
78. My unit has received a number of allegations from different
sources and locations in the world about the unlawful use of
performance enhancing drugs or recreational use of unlawful drugs by
players past and present. We have also received allegations about
baggage and equipment on tours being used to facilitate the movement
of unlawful drugs. Most of these allegations have been dismissed or
they cannot be substantiated. This leaves a small number of
allegations from people who have been shown to be knowledgeable and
reliable in respect of other aspects of malpractice in cricket. This
should provide a further wake up call to the ICC to ensure it
monitors the potential for drug abuse in cricket.
Why Has Corruption Developed in Cricket?
79. I have taken every opportunity to allow people involved in
cricket to explain to me why they think corruption established such
a strong foothold. Whilst the explanations and excuses have varied
in emphasis they embrace some or all of the following:
- International cricketers are paid less than top soccer players,
golfers, tennis players or formula one drivers and are therefore
more vulnerable to corrupt approaches.
- During the last World Cup and other major events the cricketers
received a low single figure percentage of the proceeds from the
event and resent the distribution of profits elsewhere.
- Cricketers have little say or stake in the running of the sport
and limited recognition of their representative bodies, where they
exist.
- Cricketers have relatively short and uncertain playing careers,
often without contracts and some seek to supplement their official
earnings with money from corrupt practices.
- Some administrators either turn a blind eye or are themselves
involved in malpractice.
- Cricketers play a high number of One Day Internationals and
nothing is really at stake in terms of national pride or selection
in some of these matches.
- Cricketers can take money from potential corruptors in return for
innocuous information and yet refuse to fix matches.
- Whistleblowing and informing on malpractice was ignored or
penalised rather than encouraged.
- There was no structure in place to receive allegations about
corruption.
- Cricketers were coerced into malpractice because of threats to
them and their families.
- It was just too easy.
80. None of these explanations and excuses, even if true, can
ever begin to justify the betrayal of the game of cricket or the
damage caused by the impact of corruption. However, these
explanations need to be tested and examined to provide a more
effective regime of prevention and detection of malpractice in the
future.
81. Variations in pay and conditions may have played a part in
tempting players and others into corruption. But relatively well
paid players have been drawn into corruption and relatively poor
ones have resisted. Greed and opportunity are the main factors which
are common in all the cases of corruption.
82. The classic seduction of a player into corrupt behaviour
followed a familiar route. The target for corruption was introduced
to the corruptor by an innocent or conspiratorial third party. The
corruptor sought a betting advantage through contact with the
targeted player or umpire. The spectrum of outcomes from these
relationships ranged from information about players, pitches, team
selection and morale through to the securing of under- performance
and the fixing of match results.
83. The corrupt approach was often subtle, ambiguous and patient.
The relationship would sometimes start innocently with admiration of
players being used as the reason for invitations to mix socially.
Corruptors have masqueraded as journalists or other professionals to
gain access to players. Gifts without obligation would follow and
eventually the true motivation for the relationship would emerge.
The corrupt approaches would be made and either embraced or
rejected.
84. The environment in which these corrupt relationships
developed is also worthy of analysis as common sense measures to
prevent further malpractice flow from this exercise.
85. I have already described the prevailing climate of silence,
apathy, ignorance and fear and this culture was not conducive to
dealing with the problem. Players did not want to inform on each
other and there was no system to receive or process reports of
improper approaches or behaviour. This environment was aggravated in
many cases by an absence of security or control.
86. Until recently, security in the broadest sense was not on the
agenda. Consequently, access to players for corrupt purposes at
hotels, training grounds, stadia and even team dressing rooms was
effortless. The unrestricted mixing of teams, supporters,
journalists and others at many of these venues, whilst
understandable, provided an ideal opportunity for corrupt approaches
and meetings.
87. This relaxed regime was particularly relevant at neutral
venues where none of the participating teams was on home territory
or under the intense scrutiny of home fans. Corrupt practices took
place under the cover of the carnival atmosphere of some of these
events.
88. The nature of the match or tournament has been an important
determinant of the willingness or reluctance of people to be
corrupted for betting purposes. If national pride was not really at
stake then players were more susceptible to corrupt approaches.
89. At some of these tournaments the payment regime to players
and others has been vague and the total remuneration for a player
could involve cash in an envelope from the organisers, gifts and
payments from fans and from bookmakers and gamblers. The corruptors
have exploited this relaxed regime and players and umpires through
ignorance or avarice have received gifts and money which may have
led to corruption.
90. The spectre of a more sinister regime of fear and coercion
has been raised to explain some aspects of cricket corruption. The
Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) in India, has an investigation
underway into the links between organised crime and cricket. My unit
has met people who have made allegations about threats to their life
as a result of exposing cricket corruption and I have met a number
of people who were, in my opinion, genuinely frightened of the
consequences if it became known they were cooperating with the Anti
Corruption Unit.
91. It is too early to make definitive statements about the
involvement of criminals or organised crime but it is alleged from a
number of separate sources that a major criminal had access to an
individual team and wielded undue influence over team selection and
performance. It is also alleged that a murder in South Africa was a
contract killing as a result of a dispute between rival corruptors
from other countries. The proceeds of corruption in cricket are
sufficiently large to attract the attention of organised crime and
corruption provides an opportunity for easy profit and simple money
laundering.
Particularly Vulnerable Matches
92. The allegations made to the Anti Corruption Unit suggest that
the corruptors are more likely to target some matches rather than
others and although I have described these separately elsewhere in
the report I will draw them together again to emphasise the ongoing
vulnerability of certain matches:
- Where little is at stake, other than pride. Typically the last
match in a series which has already been won convincingly by a team
and substantial odds are being offered against them being beaten by
the weaker side
- One Day Internationals in tournaments where one of the sides
playing has either already qualified for the next stage of the
tournament or already been eliminated. Hansie Cronjč called these
matches 'soft matches' and others have called them by the bridge
term 'dead rubber' matches. Again betting against form provides
attractive odds and if the match is fixed guarantees a handsome
return for the corruptors.
- One Day International tournaments on neutral territory. We have
received reports of some players treating these events with
indifference and the opportunity to maximise the receipt of gifts or
indulge in under- performance for betting purposes.
Domestic Cricket
93. An important question in assessing the extent of corruption
in international cricket is whether it mirrors malpractice in the
domestic leagues and tournaments within the individual countries. My
primary focus and my terms of reference relate to international
cricket but I have sought to understand the potential risk to
domestic cricket. A case can be made that if international players
are prepared to sacrifice national pride and reputation by under-
performing for corrupt reasons, at international level, they will be
even more likely to carry out similar activities at club level.
However, the most important factor would appear to be whether there
is a betting market to place bets on fixed matches and occurrences
within matches. From the work undertaken by my unit there is
overwhelming evidence of a significant unlawful market place for
betting on all international matches, wherever they are played in
the world. The evidence in relation to an unlawful betting market
place for club, county, state or other matches is patchy, anecdotal
and not compelling. There is no room for complacency but
international cricket remains the main arena for cricket corruption.
The Scale of the Problem and the Countries Involved
94. At appendix B, I have summarised the inquiries and
investigations into cricket corruption and elsewhere in the report I
have suggested that these episodic inquiries have only revealed the
tip of the iceberg. At appendix C, I have set out matches mentioned
in some of these official inquiries.
95. The scale of the problem has justifiably undermined
confidence in the integrity of the game and challenged the
legitimacy and ability of those who run the game nationally and
internationally. Because of the often secretive nature of the
corrupt arrangement we will never know the full extent of corruption
in cricket. However, we do now have a much clearer idea of how, when
and where much of it took place and this gives me the confidence to
make a series of recommendations for reform.
96. The challenge to combat cricket corruption is a world wide
challenge. The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) and the Indian
Government have courageously acknowledged the role which the
unlawful betting industry in India has played. In many ways the
Indian betting industry has been the engine room which has powered
and driven cricket corruption. The work of my unit has shown that it
would be wrong to leave the analysis at this statement for we are or
will be carrying out investigations which embrace most of the full
member countries of the International Cricket Council. The blame for
the spread of cricket corruption is a shared responsibility and must
not be unfairly laid upon the Indian sub-continent.
Corruption is Still Taking Place
97. Despite the publicity given to the ban on Hansie Cronjč, the
sentences handed out to players from Pakistan and India and the
formation of the Anti Corruption Unit, there are indications that
some players and others are still acting dishonestly and to the
orders of bookmakers. Allegations have been made to my unit in
relation to matches played in the ICC knockout tournament in Nairobi
in October 2000 and more recently in relation to the New Zealand v
Pakistan series in 2001. These allegations are being reviewed and
full investigations will take place, if justified.
98. I believe the blatant cases and excesses of cricket
corruption have been stopped. I know from the work of the ACU that
most of the preliminary approaches to players, umpires, groundsmen
and others, to sound out their willingness to be drawn into
corruption, have stopped. What is left is a small core of players
and others who continue to manipulate the results of matches or
occurrences within matches for betting purposes. They may be doing
so out of greed, arrogance or because they are not being allowed to
cease. Some may fear their previous corruption will be exposed if
they try to stop and some may fear threats of violence if they stop.
It will take some time before those who have developed a corrupt
lifestyle within cricket have sufficient fear of exposure and
punishment to stop.
The Role of the International Cricket Council and the
National Cricket Boards
99. I have set out above some of the factors which help to
explain why corruption developed in cricket. To conclude this
section I will comment on the role of the International Cricket
Council and the National Cricket Boards.
100. With the benefit of knowledge now in the public domain, a
compelling case is made that the ICC and the individual cricket
boards could and should have done more to deal with the problem of
corruption at an earlier stage. It is important to understand why
those who have run cricket nationally and internationally failed to
get to grips with the problem.
101. Until the most recent contracts linked to the TV rights for
the ICC tournaments, including the 2003 and 2007 World Cups, the ICC
did not have the financial security or the collective will from the
constituent boards to provide an adequate infrastructure of
administration and control. Consequently, the ICC has not had and
still does not have the staff or systems in place to enable the
proper governance, leadership or supervision of world cricket.
102. For almost half of its history the ICC was a loose and
fragile alliance with a small central administration based at Lords,
in London with limited budgets and limited powers. Naivety and no
clear mandate to deal with corruption exacerbated the problem. Also
the ICC staff at Lords missed opportunities to encourage more robust
action to deal with the challenge. Although the Executive Board of
the ICC has proposals for developing the ICC administration it does
not yet provide an infrastructure to meet the financial and
governance requirements of the modern game.
103. The current President of the ICC has encouraged change and
given strong support to the Anti Corruption Unit which has been
fully operational since September 2000. It is disappointing but not
surprising that until very recently the ICC, at the centre, was in
very poor shape to respond to the disparate strands of corruption as
they emerged around the world.
104. The individual cricket boards and member countries of the
ICC responded to the emerging problem of corruption with a patchwork
of criminal, judicial, disciplinary and informal measures. The
history of these investigations is set out at appendix B. No single
inquiry had the jurisdiction to investigate beyond its own country,
players and officials. Nevertheless, a disturbing picture gradually
emerged of the extent of corruption and opportunities were missed to
share information and concerns.
105. Firm action has been taken in some cases. However, the
resolute action by some has been diluted by others who have
procrastinated and missed opportunities to deal with the problem.
National pride and embarrassment have certainly hindered a more
collaborative and coordinated approach to dealing with the problem.
In some cases the perception is given that allegedly corrupt players
have been tolerated because of their importance to national sides.
This ambivalence to facing up to the challenge of corruption remains
a real threat to the integrity of the effort to clean up the game.
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